0000005705 00000 n Generally, milk and milk products are more difficult to remove from eating utensils than other types of foods [13] and they may act as protective agents. The use of suboptimal concentrations of sodium hypochlorite and didecyldimonium chloride can be a crucial cause of the evolution of antibiotic-resistant Pseudomonas strains. 1123 0 obj<>stream Planet, 0000003140 00000 n Hence, the hygiene of the personnel who handle food in foodservice establishments is an important preventive measure in minimizing cross-contamination of food contact surfaces and the food itself with norovirus [16], [18]. There are some possible explanations regarding the ineffectiveness of the ware-washing procedures to achieve higher reductions of the virus from the contaminated surfaces. Analyzed the data: J. Li MAP. Since norovirus is highly contagious and its infectious dose is relatively low (10–100 particles), only a few infectious virus particles can cause human infection [1], [3]. Once the sanitization step was completed and the tableware items air dried for 1 h, 4 samples of each item were collected. The stock culture of each organism was prepared by transferring a loopful of the E. coli and L. innocua into 50 ml of Trypticase soy broth (Difco, Becton Dickinson, Sparks, MD) containing 0.3% (wt/wt) yeast extract (Fisher Scientific) (TSBYE) and then incubation of the cultures at 37°C for 24 h. A loopful of this broth was then inoculated into a Trypticase soy agar slant (Difco, Becton Dickinson) supplemented with 0.3% (wt/wt) yeast extract (TSAYE) and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. This TSAYE containing the cell cultures was stored in a refrigerator at 4°C and used as a stock culture. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. It is responsible for at least 50% of all gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide [1]. Whitehead and McCue, (2010) [27], and Nowak et al. Yes The ineffectiveness of the traditional sanitizers and the ware-washing protocols to significantly remove and/or inactivate MNV-1 from contaminated surfaces is in agreement with published reports which suggested that the current food hygiene guidelines, most of which have been optimized for the prevention of bacterial infections, may not be fully effective against viruses [17], [24]. Fig. 0000004737 00000 n Fig. This entire cycle was repeated but with the chlorine sanitizer instead. The statistical analysis revealed that the mean reductions achieved after sanitization with the chlorine and QAC sanitizers were not significantly different (p>0.0001) than the reductions achieved by the control. These compounds are able to … 0000009810 00000 n e50273. After the washing cycle, the tableware items were automatically sprayed with the QAC sanitizing solutions for 10 s at 49°C. * E-mail: pascall.1@osu.edu (MAP); li.926@osu.edu (JL), Affiliation The quaternary ammonium compound evaluated in this study and citricidal were not effective against feline calicivirus and feline parvovirus. Yes This result is consistent with those of other researchers who showed that norovirus can survive for up to 30 days on stainless steel (Takahashi et al., 2011) [14] and 7 days on fecal contaminated surfaces [15], [16]. Cross-contamination of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods with pathogens on contaminated tableware and food preparation utensils is an important factor associated with foodborne illnesses. These samples (before and after the ware-washing procedure) were collected using cotton-tipped swabs moistened with the PBS solution. Additionally, the results suggested that when the chlorine solution was used during mechanical ware-washing, the reduction of E. coli K-12 from the plates tended to be higher when compared with that of the forks and the drinking glasses. At the conclusion of the study, five foodborne illness risk factors were identified. E. coli K12 (ATCC 29181) and L. innocua (ATCC 33090) were stored in a −80°C freezer in 30% (v/v) sterile glycerol (Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, NJ) and revived when required for the experimental procedure. To determine the effectiveness of the sanitizers for inactivation of MNV-1 in solutions, MNV-1 stock (108 PFU/ml) was directly inoculated into DMEM or milk, followed by addition of different sanitizers including chlorine and QAC at final concentration of 200 ppm for each sanitizer, respectively. The forks were washed by using fifteen forward and fifteen backward strokes with the sponge. Overall, these results are in agreement with previous studies [10], [13], where E. coli K-12 and L. innocua showed stability under drying conditions. 0000005553 00000 n 0000007884 00000 n The effects were studied on L. monocytogenes in vitro and on stainless steel chips inoculated with the organism. The effects of three representative disinfectants, chlorine (sodium hypochlorite), iodine (potassium tetraglicine triiodide), and quaternary ammonium compound (didecyldimethylammonium chloride), on several exotic disease viruses were examined. Confluent monolayers of RAW 264.7 cells were grown in 6-well plates (BD Falcon, Franklin Lakes, NJ) containing DMEM with 10% FBS for 24 h at 37°C and 5% CO2. The survival of MNV-1 in both suspensions was quantified by plaque assay as described above. 0000001951 00000 n noroviruses and their surrogates) are fairly resistant to chemical agents, including QACs and chlorine-based sanitizers [25], [26]. Common foods associated with the transmission of norovirus include fresh produce, ready-to-eat foods, oysters, baked goods, and berries [6]. However, little information regarding the efficacy of traditional sanitizers for the reduction of foodborne viruses from food contact surfaces is available in the literature. 0000002835 00000 n Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. The Swimming Pool Water Disinfectant Test Method of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists was used to determine the effect of the accepted level of 2 ppm of some commercial quaternary ammonium algicides on the germicidal activity of chlorine. The data showed that after washing and sanitizing with the QAC sanitizer, MNV-1 was reduced on the ceramic plates by 2.7 log and the mean reduction for both the forks and glasses were 1.6 and 1.4 log, respectively. Yes 0000021170 00000 n 0000004245 00000 n 0000003695 00000 n a) Cylindrical sponge b) Sponge attached to the spring-loaded tool. All tests were duplicated in this study. 0000010477 00000 n No, Is the Subject Area "Detergents" applicable to this article? Ingestion of aerosolized vomitus, indirect exposure via fomites or contaminated environmental surfaces are also recognized as important means for the transmission of noroviruses [1]. No significant differences (p>0.0001) were found for bacterial counts before and after the air-drying period. 0 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050273, Editor: Paul J. Yes However, the mean reductions achieved by the chlorine sanitizer were significantly different (p<0.0001) than those obtained with the control and the QAC. �ͽ��ܝM�L j���]=-l%. PLoS ONE 7(12): PLoS One 7 (12): e50273. The test tubes containing the samples were vortexed to remove any viral particles attached to the tip of the swab. Exceeding this concentration might have increased the reduction of both test virus and bacteria on the surfaces but could subject consumers to residual toxicity if used in a real world environment. 0000013861 00000 n The sodium hypochlorite solution used in this study was 200±20 ppm and this concentration was determined using a HI 95771 Chlorine Ultra High Range Meter (Hanna Instruments, Ann Arbor, MI). Prior to each experiment, the machine was cleaned with hot water (49°C) and filled with fresh water. After washing, the tableware items were rinsed, sanitized and placed in a clean rack and air dried for 1 h at 24±2°C. The report also showed that contaminated equipment had a high percentage of out of compliance observations. <]>> Briefly, the MNV-1 stock (108 PFU/ml) was seeded on the surface of each table ware and was air dried for 1 h. The virus was recovered by swab-rinse method as described in Materials and Methods, and the titer was determined by plaque assay. The fixation was done for 4 h. The overlay-formaldehyde solution was removed and the wells stained with 0.05% crystal violet (wt/v) for 1 h in order to visualize and count the viral plaques. For ware washing with chlorine sanitization, the reductions ranged from 1.7 to 3.5 log per tableware item. Tap water was used as a control sanitizer. 1090 34 Confluent RAW 264.7 cells were infected with the MNV-1 at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 0.2. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click Copyright: © 2012 Feliciano et al. This is so because QAC is positively charged and when in contact with microorganisms its cationic head is oriented outwards and the hydrophobic tail attracted to the lipid bilayers of the organisms. Overall, the viral counts detected on the different surfaces after sanitization with the three treatments were statistically different (p<0.0001) than the initial viral counts prior to the ware-washing. The effectiveness of chlorine as a sanitizer is also limited by the action of organic matter [31], [32], [33]. As part of a 10 year study which began in 1998, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collected data from more than 800 food establishments. Yes 0000002246 00000 n In the healthcare setting, “alcohol” refers to two water-soluble chemical compounds—ethyl … Dispatch is not recommended for use on aluminum surfaces. This study evaluated the occurrence of practices and behaviors commonly identified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as contributing factors to foodborne illness outbreaks [9]. From the contaminated cream cheese above, a 0.5 g aliquot was applied to the fork. Restaurants and foodservice establishments are recognized as important sites for the transmission of foodborne illnesses [7], [8]. No, Is the Subject Area "Sanitization" applicable to this article? A total of 3 g of this cream cheese was then applied to the entire food contact surface of each ceramic plate. However, chlorine was able to inactivate both E. coli K-12 and L. innocua. %PDF-1.4 %���� Conceived and designed the experiments: J. Li MAP. Also, the combination of different detergents and sanitizing solutions (especially those containing surfactant agents) should be evaluated since they may help to enhance the removal and inactivation of non-enveloped viruses. Citation: Feliciano L, Li J, Lee J, Pascall MA (2012) Efficacies of Sodium Hypochlorite and Quaternary Ammonium Sanitizers for Reduction of Norovirus and Selected Bacteria during Ware-Washing Operations. Research has shown quaternary ammonium compounds to effectively kill most bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Tap water was used as a control sanitizer. Sodium hypochlorite (chlorine-bleach) and quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC) were used as the sanitizing solutions. Wrote the paper: LF J. Li MAP. The literature also reports on studies using Feline Calicivirus (FCV) as a surrogate for human norovirus [15]. 0000002406 00000 n Sodium hypochlorite is very effective against all types of micro-organism (including spores). broad scope, and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time. The initial titer of MNV-1 stock was 108 plaque forming unit (PFU)/ml. The QAC was an OASIS 146 Multi-Quat sanitizer manufactured by Ecolab, Inc. (St. Paul, MN). For the ware washing with the QAC sanitization, the range was 1.6 to 3.2 log per tableware item. 0000004207 00000 n xref Consult manufacturer directions to determine the efficacy of the disinfectant against the biohazards in your lab and be sure to allow for sufficient contact time. 0000009856 00000 n We also determined the recovery rate for the swab-rinse method used in our study. The swabs were then transferred to test tubes containing 0.1% peptone water and vortexed vigorously to remove any bacteria from the tips. 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